Tracks Across Time Into The 21st Century

I. Education and Wealth of Nations:

1. From the very days of the development of economic doctrines, economists started enquiring into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations. The mercantilists viewed trade as the only source of economic growth. Later, during the days of pbysiocrats, land was identified as the most important factor of the economic growth. By the end of the eighteenth Century, the classical economists came out with a new theory of economic growth in favour of Capital. The Marxian economists sang hymns in praise of labour. By the beginning of twentieth Century, entrepreneurship had become the honoured factor in the theory of growth, thanks to Joseph Schumpeter. At the beginning of the second half of the twentieth Century, the crown was captured by economists of education led by Nobel Laureate Theodore Schultz (1961). Schultz's 'human revolution in economic thought', as it is aptly known resulted in recognition of education as a productive sector, and of expenditure on education as an 'investment' producing 'human capital; comparable with physical capital! (Tilak, 1994)

Il. Education in the Ancient Civilizations:

1. Thousands of Egyptian manuscripts, monuments and mummies preserved by the dry air and sand, by solidity of structure or care in embalming witness the extent to which her civilization was developed tens of centuries before the earliest epochs of Greece. Roughly, the period could be reckoned as 5000 B.C. Not much is known about the method of 'education which was mainly through memorising and imitation.
2. The history of education of the Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations dates back to little after 3000 B.C. and the method was more or less similar to that of Egypt i.e. memorising and imitation.
3. Not much is known about the education in ancient China. What is known with accuracy dates back to the seventh Century. But Confucius puts it as 2357 B.C. which is gathered from his five Classics and three Books. II.
4. In India, the history of education goes back to the Vedic times i.e. 5000 B.C. It was the Master-Disciple System wherein the disciples used to stay with Master (Gurukul i.e. Master's family) for a period of twelve yearsThere were Teachers who specialised in different disciplines viz weaponry, tactics, literature, astrology, poetry, grammar, politics and so on. Though predominantly, the method adopted was memorising and imitation, manuscripts of scriptures, saved from the onslaughts of the foreign invaders, support the thought of 'written method' also.
5. In Persia, the system was akin to India, only in so far as memorising and imitation was concerned. It was informal and there was no intellectual education (Graves, 1993).

III. Plato on Education:

1. Long back Plato believed education to he indispensable for the economic health of a good society as it made citizens 'reasonable men'. Since education has a higher economic value, Plato argued that a considerable part of the communities wealth must be invested in education.
2. It was a seminal point that Plato made in the Republic at the very start of his investigation into the nature of justice, namely, that we should first see it „writ large". Only then can we grasp its meandering course in the lives of individual men and women. What according to Plato is true of justice is equally true of education in a complex society as of today. From the individuaI's end, it will be difficult to grasp the essence of education. We must first see it 'writ large', i.e. to say what it means to the organised Plurality of men.
3. The patent fact about education 'writ large' is that it sustains and nurtures the Civilised state of man. This was always true and never truer than it is now. Take the Indian Society or for that matter any society today. It needs teachers, writers, engineers, philosophers, scientists and so on in large and some times ever larger numbers if it is to keep itself as a going concern and it gets them only through the educational process.

lV. The Classical Economists' views:

1. A major contribution to the discussion on the role of education in development was made by Adam Smith who highlighted the economic 'capital' Value of education. David Richardo and Thomas Malthus favoured education as a means of inculcating good habit, a desire for self improvement, moral Commitment and individual responsibility. Malthus further felt that lack of education makes men poor and poverty makes men unhappy. John Stuart Mill highlighted the importance of an educated labour force. Marshall emphasized that the most valuable of all capital is that invested in human beings. However, this long tradition bas been forgotten and Schultz is credited with the rediscovery of the importance of education (Tilak, 1994).

V. Global Overview:

1. Eversince, education has been receiving wide recognition around the world as a key element of the development process. The human investment revolution in economic thought (Schultz,1961) has indeed spread to most parts of the world and a global educational miracle has taken place during the last 3-4 decades with an unprecedented explosion in enrolments. World enrolments at all levels of education increased four fold, from about 220 million in 1950 to about 1000 million by 1990. During this period, as much as one third of the increase in the total population was absorbed in educational Institutions as student enrolments. More than half the world population in the age group of 6-24 years is currently in schools & colleges. The number of Adult literates, in the world doubled from 1.1 billion in 1960 to 2.3 billion in 1985. The number of teachers increased 6 1/2 times from 7.9 million in 1950 to 51.4 million in 1990. Public expenditure on education increased by about 13 times from $54 billion in 1960 to $1.1 trillion (at current prices) in 1991 as a percentage of total world product, expenditure on education increased from 3.9 in 1960 to 5.1 in 1991 ( UNESCO, 1993). For expenditure on education in selected countries please refer to Appendix I.
2. It is difficult to imagine any comparable period in world history when education expansion was so rapid, the numbers involved so overwhelming (Patel, 1985 ). Modern education systems have been established almost everywhere and the spread of Modern economic growth has noticeably accelerated (Easterlin, 1981).

Genesis of Modern Education:

1. About two centuries back, education was merely informative. Intellect was developed to the neglect of other phases of personality. The child was made to remain quiet and receptive; the teacher was a dictator. Curriculum was bookish and rigid and consequently the child was made to adjust to it.
2. The beginning of the eighteenth Century saw a considerable reaction against this narrow view of education. Initiated by Rousseau and followed by Pestalozzi, Herbart, Froebel and Montessori, the modern reaction against this concept of learning reached its climax and found its most persuasive exponent in the American philosopher - educationist - John Dewey.
3. Jean Jacques Rousseau was the first in the field; he published ‘Emil’ wherein he suggested drastic changes in the theory and practice of education. Whereas children had been previously consider to be innately evil, Rousseau went to the opposite extent and wrote that they were innately good. This new concept of child led to improved treatment of children in a number of homes and schools. The greatest contribution of Rousseau to education was the recognition of the difference between the immature child and the adult. His book 'Emile' served as the fountainhead of inspiration of every great educational reform since the eighteenth century.
4. Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) extended Rousseau's naturalism by giving concrete suggestions to be carried out in the schools. Pestalozzi tried to offset Rousseau's individualistic imbalance without forgetting that children must be educated as children before they become adults. He organised his schools on the pattern of the family, maintaining that there should be no difference between the school and the home. The major contribution of Pestalozzi was pupil-activity to an extent formerly unknown, constructive and creative work, and pupil discussion.
5. Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) sometimes called the 'father of modem psychology' was a German philosopher and educator whose ideas gave an impetus to the education in the first half of the nineteenth century. The novelty consisted in the psychological basis of his philosophy. He believed that a mere accumulation of facts was useless and that facts must be so taught as to have meaning for the learner. This learning should lead to character formation. He maintained that the aim of education was ethical and moral.
6. Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel (1782-1852), a German educator, is wellknown as the father of the kindergarten concept. He was neglected in his early years and his memories of the sufferings of those years made him want to help lead happier lives. Froebel created a new respect. for the individuality of the child. He impressed upon the world that the rigid discipline and traditional formality of the school atmosphere must be given up to develop the dynamic and active qualities of child's nature. Froebel's kindergarten had been declared to be "by far the most original, attractive and philosophical form of infant development the world has yet seen ".
7. Dr. Maria Montessori (1870-1952) is the next theorist in this sequence of child romance, Her methods of child education were based on her work with the mentally deficient. Dr. Montessori trained her children to work but there was no imposition of work, there were no rewards and no punishments. "Every stupid child and every stupid man is the product of discouragement" ---- that sums up her thesis.
8. John Dewey (1859-1952) was regarded as a great philosopher, educationist and humanist. He exercised a profound influence on the American Educational System of his times and also on other philosophers and educators of the world, Dewey emphasised learning from experience and activity. According to him, the child is spilling over with interest. His interest must be capitalised for education.
9. Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) was a great educator of the east who contributed to the theory and practice of education. Tagore is India's Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel, all rolled into one. Like them, be turned rebel. Again, he stood for the emancipation of the child and asserted its right to live on his own. Tagore happens to be the first educator in the world who felt that the teacher will have to play a new role in the international sphere because most of the problems today are international.
10. Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948), a philosopher-educationist advocated the Basis Education in the East. Whereas Dewey correlated all useful knowledge with crafts, Gandhiji made an original contribution to the world of pedagogy with the introduction of craft as the centre of correlation. It was not education plus work but education through work.
11. The influence upon Indian education of this galaxy of prominent educators - Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Herbart, Froebel, Montessori, Caldwell Cook, John Dewey, Mahatma Gandhi, Rabindranath Tagore -- is so interwoven, both in spirit and method into the fabric of education, that it would be almost impossible to isolate the contributions of all these. Indian education in particular and system of education in almost all the countries of the world in general is infinitely richer with the contribution of all these great teachers of mankind. (Kochhar, 1988)

Vll. The Socio-economic and cultural aspects:

1. Education is inseparably intertwined with other socio-economic strands and is integrated in a society through every fabric of its being. It is a sub-system of the larger system, sustaining the latter and is, in turn, sustained by it.
2. We said earlier that it is education which sustains and nurtures the civilization of man. It does so by fitting men and women in certain roles in society. To understand the nature of education, therefore, we have to understand what it means to prepare a person to fill a role in a system of roles so that the system of roles constitutes a civilised society.
3. Cultural unity, respect for others' culture, preservation of culture etc. Although we speak of culture of a group, or of a country the essence of cultural elements in individual help to make for cultural unity, for functional group interaction and for organised, purposeful living together. Differences in cultural elements among individuals and conflict in values and purposes within individuals often lead to tensions and to change in cultural characteristics and values.
4. Global values consist of all those values pertinent and significant for global peace and order, solidarity, freedom and justice for all, complete disarmament, abolition of all forms of slavery, torture and capital punishment (Griffin & Pareek, 1970).

The Indian Scenario:

1. Lord Macaulay's Famous minutes of Education of 1835 laid the foundation of a modern system of Education in India. This system was introduced primarily to train man power for maintaining law and order in the country for sustaining the infrastructure required to explose resources and to market their products for the purpose of providing a comfortable life for the industrial society of United Kingdom. Much before that, Raja Ram Mohan Roy had advocated introduction of the European system of education in the country.
2. The adoption of the (now) common pattern of 10+2+3 for schools and colleges was highlighted as an important reform in the Indian system of Education and was first recommanded by the Calcutta University Commission (1919).
3. After the Independence, the University Education Commission (1948) under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan examined the matter for the first time. The main thrust of the report inter alia was on the university as the organ of civilization, Intellectual Adventure, Integrated way of life, Wisdom and Knowledge and aims of social orders. To quote from the report ‘To use the words of Upanishads', we may be the knowers of texts (Mantravit) and not knowers of self (Atmavit). Plato distinguishes between factual information and understanding. No amount of factual information would make ordinary men into educated or 'virtuous' men unless something is awakened in them, an innate ability to live the life of soul."
4. All India Secondary Education Commission constituted under the Chairmanship of Dr. A.L. Mudaliar submitted its report in 1953. The simplest reform, in terms of the report, would have been to add one year to the degree course and to transfer the two years of the intermediate course to the schools stage. But, for various reasons and mainly for financial considerations, this could not be done. Instead, the recommendation of the Sargent Report of an eleven year higher secondary school followed by three year course for first degree was revived and the pattern of 8+3+3 was adopted.
5. The entire position was reviewed once again by the All India Education Commission (l966) under the Chairmanship of Dr. D.S.Kothari the Commission, after examining then existing situation, came to the conclusion that it would he highly desirable to adopt the uniform pattern of 10+2+3 for schools and colleges throughout the country.
6. A new Education Policy was introduced by the Government of India in l986 (National Policy on Education). And a little latter, bearing in mind the recommendations of the Indian Education Commission, the Government of India issued a National Policy Statement on Education for the country in l988.
7. With a view to interacting with the world-community and 'internationalisation of education' as envisaged by Tagore, a number of exchange programmes, joint research projects, schemes and bilateral protocols are being implemented at the Government, Semi-Government and autonomous international agencies' levels. To quote a few: Collection of source material of research work in UK and other countries, Development of Canadian Studies, Indo-US Fellowship programmes, CSIR-CNRS (France) Exchange of Scientists Programme and Commonwealth Academic Staff Fellowships and Scholarships etc.

Dr. Parnerkar's Thoughts on Education:

1. Dr. Ramchandra Pralhad Parnerkar,Ph.D. (1916-1980) who is no more, was one of the original thinkers in Contemporary India. Dr. Parnerkar was known as 'Parnerkar Maharaj' and is respected and followed by thousands of his disciples. He being a 'Maharaj', does belong to the glorious Spiritual Tradition of India. While continuing the ancient Spiritual Tradition of India, he put his own doctrines in a very clear, lucid, persuasive and non-dogmatic style of thinking in the fields of Philosophy, Spiritualism, Economics, Education, Cosmogony etc. Let us now examine Dr. Parnerkar's views on the subject of Education:
2. Man's birth is Almighty's wish but his sustenance is not. One has to make an effort to sustain. It is only with systematic efforts that he can sustain otherwise not. And how to make systematic effort is a matter of learning. In order to take this 'education', man developed a variety of sciences viz. Dharma, Morality, Logic, Philosophy, Economics, Politics, Sociology, Psychology, Educational Science, Medical Science and so on. He developed these Sciences in order to learn as to 'how would it be possible' to or 'how to sustain'. He studies all these sciences today. Unfortunately, however, he has forgotten the object of his study i.e. he has to learn to 'sustain'.
3. He makes too much fuss of circumstances due to the fact that he is not being convinced about the need to make deliberate efforts to acquire wisdom.
4. Reading and writing are considered imperative by the social scientists to make a man 'human'. But nobody is concerned to assess whether and to what extent, these two "R"s transform him?
5. Education a very pious institution once is the scene of total confusion at least in India today, and, barring a few exceptions, it is not much different in other (Particularly) developing countries.

IX(a). The Olden Days:

1. Earlier man possessed limited knowledge but he had implicit faith in it and it used to be his endeavour to retain and foster that knowledge till breathing his last. He learnt 'by faith'. Today we learn 'by doubt'.
2. There is a fake notion among the educated today that wisdom can be acquired by mere reading of books. At times, they seem to be having the pleasure and pride of having assimilate the Contents of book by merely reading the 'preface'. And this has permeated down to the younger generation who, on the pretext of 'reading' at home, are inattentive in the class and the teachers are a subject of their 'entertainment'.

IX(b) The parents' Plight:

1. The economic Compulsions and parents' inability encourage the wards unruly behaviour. Score-Card is reckoned as the index of their intelligence. Parents don't take pains to evaluate their children. He is aware that once he, gets into a job, he won't be able to enjoy and therefore, indulges in all sorts of vices when in fact he should be more concerned about his physique.
2. Parenthood is a matter of age. One acquires parenthood as one grows up and begets children. Unlike parenthood, wisdom is not a matter of age. Wisdom can be acquired only by a deliberate Program of learning. Wisdom cannot be identified with one thing or the other except that mastery of life is a true indicator of Wisdom. Just as man doesn't understand that wisdom doesn't come automatically, even an intelligent person is unable to put into practice or apply the wisdom that he has acquired in life.

IX(c) Education is putting Wisdom into Practice:

1. To put into practice that which occurs in mind or to feel only that which would be put into practice, though look alike, per se, they are not so. To turn the thoughts into action, there is a need for physical strength and the habit of working. But to get only such thoughts in mind as would be turned into action, one must know oneself in a matter-of-fact-way, must have tried many things which develop the Confidence that ' we will do this'.
2. Knowledge does not solve the problem of livelihood. And today man does not acquire Knowledge in true sense and the wisdom earnestly. The reason being, he doesn't feel the pinch that these two are required in his social life.
3. Whatever we abandoned or destroyed as being 'old', we sacrificed the value of knowledge and wisdom in our act of doing so. Man hardly has the realisation, good or bad, that there is something called 'society'. Whatever he learnt, in that he learnt that Knowledge and wisdom has no Spiritual value. And since he doesn't experience that there is a social value to the knowledge and wisdom he behaves irately. Here there is no use of any Educational method. If society would survive as 'society' then alone man would learn knowledge.

X. Conclusions:

1. There is a need for the 'individual' and the 'society' to realise the significance as well as the importance of their harmonious interaction. Individual behaving within the social framework and the society respecting the individual is what is envisaged.
2. Fostering circumstances which would breed the feeling among men and women that wisdom, essential for happy and prosperous life, has to be acquired with deliberate efforts.
3. That education is not for granting degrees to man which would get him a job or into a profession but it is ultimately intended to make him happy and prosperous. Money is not the only factor for happiness and prosperity.
4. To plan strategies, design methods and systems of education which would fulfil the above objectives and bring about global peace and order and make this World a better place to live in.

APPENDIX-1

TABLE 1 A: Expenditure on Education in Selected Countries

Country Per Student Expenditure 1985 (US$) Expenditure as % to GNP 1985 Afghanistan  82  1.8 Algeria  644  6.1 Bangladesh  2  1.9  Botswana  292  8.4  Burma  -  1.6 China  42  2.9  Congo  151  5.4  France  2912  6.0  Ghana  67  2.3  India  42  3.7  Iran  609  3.8  Iraq  428  3.8  Japan  2694  5.2 Jordan  207  6.6  Kenya  72  6.7  Kuwait  2658  4.2  Malaysia  535  6.6  Mauritius  18I  3.8  Nepal  28  3.0  Pakistan  63  2.1 Papua New Guinea  282  - Saudi Arabia  3898  8.9  Singapore  1252  4.4  Sri Lanka  47  3.1 Thailand  138  3.9  U.A.E.  2131  1.9  U.K.  2152  5.2 U.S.A.  5220  6.8  U.S.S.R.  1056  6.9  Yemen  288  7.5

Source: World Education at a Glance.

APPENDIX - 2

Underwork in the University and at the College Level

A university teacher earns 12 months' salary by doing work for 2 or 2.5 months.
The academic year practically consists of 187 days or so.
First term (since admission go on for 2 weeks even after college reopens)

First term  (1st August to 30th September)  2 months Second term  (10th October to 23rd December)  2 months & 1 week Third term  (8th January to 10th March)  2 months   Total  6 months & 1 week    i.e.  l87 days    Minus:     Sundays  26 days    Univ.Holidays  20 days (may go up to 24)    Off days  26 days    Discretionary Holidays (once a week) i.e. Sports Day, College Day, etc. 4 days     76 days   Leave:      Casual Leave  10 days    Earned Leave  12 days    Half Pay Leave (20) 10 days   Special Casual Leave  4 days (average)      112 days   Total Woking Days  75 in a Year    During 1980-81 Loss due to Strike 11 days         Actual Working days  64 days

Source: Report of the Committee to Enquire into the Working of the Central Universities, NCT (NIEPA), 1984

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ashok Kumar 1991.  Current Trends in Indian Education, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi.  Graves, F.P. 1993.  A History of Education before the Middle Ages, Vidya Vihar, Kanpur.  Griffin, Willis H & Pareek, Uday Narayan 1970  Process of Planned Change in Education, Somaiya Publication, Bombay.  Parnerkar, R.P. 1981  A monograph on Human Nature, Manakarnika Prakashan, Indore.  Parnerkar R.P. 1991  'In the Environment' (Marathi) Manakarnika Prakashan, Indore.  Patel, S.J. 1985  Educational Miracle in third World 1950-1981 Economic & Poiitical Weekly Aug  Schultz, T.W l961  Investment in Human Capital. American Economic Review 51 (1) Mar 1-17  Singh, Sohan 1967  The Way of Education, Asia Publishing House, Bombay.  Tilak, J.B.G 1994  Education for Development in Asia, Sage Publications, New Delhi.  NCT (NIEPA) 1984 Reports of the Committee to enquire into the working of the Central Universities,  Govt. of India (1948-49) University Education Commission Report (Dr. Radhakrishnan Commission Report)  Govt. of India 1964-66 Kothari Commission Report  Govt. of India. 1986 The National Policy on Education,

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